[Tamilnadu Board]*Class 12 History Notes | Chapter 23. THE REFORMATION AND COUNTER REFORMATION

 

LESSON 23.

THE REFORMATION AND COUNTER REFORMATION

Learning Objectives

Students will acquire knowledge about

1. The causes for the Reformation.

2. Martin Luther’s Contribution to the Reformation.

3. Ulrich Zwingli and the Reformation in Switzerland.

4. John Calvin and his contribution to the Reformation.

5. Counter Reformation.

6. The results of the Reformation.

 

            The term Reformation refers to a great religious reform movement in Europe during 16th century. There was a big protest against the Christian Church in different parts of Europe and it ultimately resulted in the emergence of Protestant Christian religion. This great religious movement was not only the evidence of a great religious change, but also proclaimed the dawn of a new era. The Reformation started in Germany and later it spread to other countries.

Causes for the Reformation

         There are several causes for the Reformation.

1. The Christian Church under the Pope was originally commanded respect among the people. But in the Middle ages, it had become a big feudal institution and possessed so much of lands and wealth. The Popes enjoyed great political influence and interfered into the political affairs. As a result they began to neglect their spiritual duties. The Pope and the clergy began to lead luxurious lives. The Popes like Alexander VI, Julius II and Leo X who lived in 15th and 16th centuries with their activities undermined the respect and prestige of the Church.

2. The Renaissance movement created a spirit of inquiry among the masses. They began to read the Bible and realized that the activities of the Church and the clergy were not according to the precepts of the holy book. In the years preceding the Reformation, many writers condemned luxurious and superstitious practices prevalent in the Church. John Wycliffe (1330-1384) from England criticized the Pope for his authority and misdeeds. He translated the Bible into English. He is considered “the Morning Star of the Reformation. Erasmus (1466-1536) attacked the superstitions followed by the clergy in his book In Praise of Folly. It was published in 1509. John Huss (1369-1415), a Bohemian, struggled for reforming the Church. But he was condemned for his writings against the Church and burnt to death. These early efforts to reform the Church sowed the seeds for the Reformation of the 16th century.

3. The emergence of nation-states in Europe eroded the political influence enjoyed by the Church during the Middle Ages. The Pope and the Emperor lost their influence and power. The people began to respect their king and the nation. Therefore, the concept of Universal Church slowly gave way to national churches.

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

              The Reformation started in Germany and it was led by Martin Luther. Martin Luther was born in Eisleben on November 10, 1483. Luther was educated at the University of Erfurt. He became a monk in 1508. In November 1510 he visited Rome. He was shocked to see the worldly life led by the Roman clergy. In 1512 he received his doctorate in theology from Wittenberg University. He began his career as a professor of theology in the same university. Thereafter, Luther began a systematic campaign for the removal of evils of the Church.

               In 1517, Pope Leo X sent John Tetzel to Germany to sell indulgences for the purpose of raising money to renovate the Saint Peter’s Church at Rome. An indulgence was originally meant a promise given to a sinner for the remission of punishment if he repented and confessed his sins. But Pope Leo X used the sale of indulgences to raise money. Therefore, Luther opposed the practice of the sale of indulgences. When John Tetzel visited Wittenberg, Luther listed the abuse of indulgence in his 95 theses and nailed it to the doors of the church. Pope Leo X got alarmed and excommunicated Luther in January 1521. Luther burnt this order in public.

               Then the Pope appealed to Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, to punish Luther for his writings against the Church. But Luther had the support of the German princes. However, he appeared before Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms in April 1521. Luther was proclaimed guilty. But before his imprisonment, he was escorted by his friends and kept at Wartburg Castle. There he translated New Testament from original Greek into German language. He published his most popular book, the Small Catechism, in 1529. Luther led a life of seclusion till his death in 1546.

               When the rural people of Germany joined this religious protest it became the Peasants’ War of 1524-1525. The revolt of peasants was suppressed with an iron hand. Many peasants were massacred. In the Diet of Spires which met in 1526, the religious question was raised again by the German princes. The Diet gave permission to the princes to choose their own religion. But, Emperor Charles V revoked this decision in 1529. Therefore, the German princes drew up a protest and they came to be known as “Protestants”. It was only in the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, formal approval was given by the Emperor to the princes either to remain Catholic or Lutheran. It gave recognition only to Lutheran sect and not to Zwinglianism or Calvinism.

 

 

Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)

            Ulrich Zwingli paved the way for the Reformation in Switzerland. He was contemporary of Martin Luther. Born in a rich family in Switzerland, he became a priest in the Zurich Canton in 1502. He attacked abuses of the Church such as the sale of indulgences. He spoke openly that the clergy should strictly follow the principles of the Bible. Samson was sent to Zurich by the Pope to sell the indulgences. It was opposed by Zwingli. Thereafter, his preaching was directed against the leadership of the Pope, the excessive veneration of saints, the celibacy of the priesthood, and fasting. His stand against the celibacy was opposed by the bishop of Constance. The city council voted in favour of Zwingli and against the bishop. Thus Zurich adopted the Reformation. In 1523, Pope sent an order excommunicating Zwingli but, the Zurich Canton announced its separation from the Church. Five other Cantons declared a war against Zurich in which Zwingli was killed in 1531. Finally an agreement was reached between the Cantons by which each Canton was given freedom to choose their religious sect.

John Calvin (1509-1564)

            The French protest reformer John Calvin was born in France. He studied humanities and Law at the University of Paris. He obtained in 1532, Doctor of Law. His first published work was a commentary on Roman philosopher Seneca’s De Clementia. In 1536, he settled in Geneva. His main teachings are that the Bible alone is the final authority for matters of faith and that salvation is attained purely through grace. He subscribed to the doctrine of the absolute fore-knowledge and the determining power of God. Calvin published his religious doctrines as a book called The Institutes of Christian Religion. His religious sect was own as Calvinism. He became the head of the church in Geneva. He established several schools for the spread of education. He was also the founder of the University of Geneva. Calvinism had spread to many parts of Europe.

Reformation in England

             King Henry VIII of England initially opposed Martin Luther and supported the Pope. He was called “the Defender of Faith” by Pope Leo X. This relationship with the Pope broke down when the Pope refused to permit King Henry VIII to marry Anne Boleyn after divorcing his queen. He asked the Parliament to pass an Act of Supremacy in 1534 by which the king was made the head of the Church of England. This new Church independent of the authority of Pope was called the Anglican Church. Henry VIII did not introduce any changes in the Catholic doctrines. But the Anglican Church became really Protestant in the reign of Edward VI (1547-1553). The service books were translated into English.

Counter-Reformation

           The success of the Reformation movement created a great awe and fear in the Roman Catholic Church. Before things went out of control, it took drastic measures to check the spread of the Protestant religion and also to carry out reforms within itself. This process was known as Counter-Reformation.

           Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) was a Spanish soldier and lost his legs in a war. Thereafter, he decided to contribute his might to the cause of the Roman Catholic Church. Loyola founded the Society of Jesus in 1534 and it was recognized by the Pope. The aim of this Society was to reform and restore the glory of the Catholic Church. Members of the society were known as Jesuits. They worked hard to earn good name for the Catholic Church through their dedicated service. They established schools and colleges in several parts of the world. They achieved a remarkable success in their missionary activities. They remained faithful to the Pope and the Catholic religion.

          The Council of Trent (1545-1563) introduced several reforms in the Catholic Church. The most glaring abuses of the clergy were removed. Celibacy was strictly enforced for them. The sale of offices was stopped. The practice of the sale of indulgences was abolished. It also stressed that clergy adhere more strictly to their duties. The Pope was recognized as the supreme authority in the matters of religion.

            An Index consisting of the list of dangerous and heretical books was issued by the Church. The Catholics were prohibited from reading these books.

            Similarly the medieval practice of Ecclesiastical Court of Inquisition was revived. Torture was used to extract confession. Severe punishments such as burning to death were employed against the enemies of the Church.

            The success of the Counter Reformation can be understood from the fact that the rapid spread of Protestantism was halted. Southern Germany, France, Poland, some of the Swiss cantons, and Savoy were brought back to the Catholic faith. At the same time Protestantism was driven out of Italy and Spain. The Roman Catholic Church is still one of the greatest religious organizations in the world.

Important Historical Events of Reformation

1492 Columbus claims Bahama Islands and Cuba for Spain

1517 Martin Luther writes the Ninety-Five Theses

1522 Luther translates the Bible into German

1525 Peasant uprising in Germany

1559 Anglican Church established in England, with the king/queen as its head

Effects of Reformation

           The important results of the Reformation were:

1. The Reformation led to two major divisions in Christianity – Catholics and Protestants. This division had resulted in religious persecution and religious wars Germany and in other parts of Europe.

 2. People were encouraged to read the Bible and ponder on religion. The freedom given by the Protestants to interpret the Bible led to free thinking. It encouraged the development of art, literature and science.

3. The democratic church system paved the way for the growth of democracy and nationalism. The nations began to evolve their own churches. The place of Pope was taken by the nationalistic churches.

4. The rapid progress of the Protestant religion and the counterReformation ultimately resulted in the purification of the Church. Both Catholics and Protestants began to adopt high moral standards after the Reformation. The Catholics purified their Church establishments and this in turn improved the values in the society.

 

Learning Outcome

After learning this lesson the students will be to explain

1. The abuses in the Church and other factors led to the Reformation.

2. The life and work of Martin Luther in bringing the Reformation in Germany.

 3. The role of John Calvin and Ulrich Zwingli in the Reformation.

4. The process of Counter Reformation and the role of Ignatius Loyola.

5. The results of the Reformation.