[Tamilnadu Board]*Class 12 History Notes | Chapter 25. FRENCH REVOLUTION

 

LESSON 25.

FRENCH REVOLUTION

Learning Objectives

Students will acquire knowledge about

1. The causes of the French Revolution.

2. The role of French philosophers.

3. The Fall of Bastille and the beginning of the revolution.

4. The Constituent Assembly and the National Convention.

5. The Reign of Terror.

6. The end of the revolution.

 

            The French Revolution opened a new chapter in the history of Europe. It marked a turning point in the history of humankind. The French Revolution put an end to the age old absolute monarchy, feudal laws and social inequality. It introduced for the first time the idea of republicanism based on “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity”. These ideas had influenced the entire continent of Europe and also the world.

Causes of the French Revolution

          The causes of the French revolution include the political, social and economic aspects that were prevalent in France before the outbreak of the revolution.

Political Causes

          France was ruled by the Bourbon dynasty. They firmly believed in the Divine Right theory – as they were representatives of God, they were answerable only to God. Louis XIV was a strong and powerful ruler of the Bourbon dynasty. His wars ruined the economy of France. His successors Louis XV and Louis XVI were weak administrators. Louis XV foretold at the end of his rule: “After me the deluge”. His words came to be true. Louis XVI was the most incompetent ruler. His wife and queen, Marie Antoinette interfered too much into the administration. She was thoroughly ignorant of the sufferings of the French people. But she always favoured and protected the interests of the French nobles. She did not allow the financial reforms to take place. Because it affected the interests of the nobles and the clergy.

Social Causes

            The French society was based on inequality. The society consisted of three major divisions, the nobles, clergy and the common people. The nobles had no political power but remained loyal to the king. They enjoyed many privileges and led a life of luxury. They were exempted from taxation. The higher clergy owned one fifth of the lands in France and enjoyed several privileges. Their number in France was around only five thousand. They lived in palatial houses and they were exempted from taxes. But the lower clergy were denied all these privileges. Therefore, they turned against the higher clergy during the revolution. Both the noble and the higher clergy led a life of ease and pleasure without bothering about the wretched condition of the masses.

           The majority of the population in France belonged to the third category. Traders, lawyers, owners of industries, government servants, peasants and workers were in this category. While the nobles and the clergy were exempted from paying taxes, the masses paid all the taxes. Hence it was said : “the nobles fight, the clergy pray and the people pay”. The taille or land tax was entirely paid by the peasants. The gabelle or salt tax was a burden on the common man. The head of each family had to pay the capitation tax. Besides paying these taxes to the king, they have to pay tithe (tax) to the Church. 

         The burden on the peasants was higher than the others because he had certain other obligations to the nobles. They were forced to use the mill, wine-press, slaughterhouse and oven of their lords after paying the usual dues. They were also compelled to render feudal services to the lords.

Economic Causes

            The financial condition of France was very critical during the reign of Louis XVI. The national debt had increased beyond the limit. The national income was less than national expenditure. Hence, the king tried to mobilize national income by selling important offices of the government. At last, the king appointed financial experts Turgot and Jacques Necker as Director-General of Finances. They tried to curtail royal expenditure and improve the income to the government. But their measures did not receive the support of the nobles. On their advice the queen Marie Antoinette removed them. Later, Calonne was appointed to look into the financial crisis. But he was not able to do anything but to levy fresh taxes. Therefore, Louis XVI was forced to convene the States General after a gap of 175 years, on May 5th, 1789.

The French Philosophers

           The writings and the preaching of the French philosophers prepared the common people for the revolution. The most prominent among them were Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau. Montesquieu in his book, The Spirit of Laws advocated the constitutional form government. He introduced the idea of separation of powers into executive, legislative and judiciary to ensure the effective functioning of democracy. Voltaire launched a crusade against superstition and attacked traditional beliefs. He wrote many essays, poems and dramas creating awareness among the masses. He advocated the supremacy of reason. He stood for religious toleration. He strongly condemned the corruptions in the church. He stood for a benevolent despotism. Rousseau was the author of the famous book, Social Contract, which was considered the Bible of the French Revolution. He said that the real sovereignty rests with the people. His famous statement, “Man is born free and is everywhere in chains” kindled the revolutionary spirit of the masses. Diderot and D’ Alembert published the Encyclopedia. It contained several essays and articles written by revolutionary thinkers. The revolutionary ideas of these philosophers spread throughout France and created awareness among the masses. The French intellectuals gave the motto “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity” which became the watchwords of the revolution of 1789.

Impact of the American War of Independence

             The independence of the thirteen American colonies from England provided a boost to the French people. The French captain Lafayette with his soldiers returned from America after helping the colonies to secure their independence. His experience in America along with the fighting spirit for the cause of democracy reached the ears of the French and inspired them. Therefore, they decided to put an end to the despotic rule of the Bourbons.

Convening of the States-General

           The bankruptcy of French treasury was the starting point of the French Revolution. Louis XVI was faced with a serious financial situation. There was also no alternative but to propose new taxes.

           So, Louis XVI summoned the States General on 5th May 1789. The main purpose for summoning the States General was to get its consent for the fresh taxes to be levied upon the people. The king also recalled Necker to head the finance ministry.

National Assembly

             The States General consisted of three Estates Chambers. The first Estate was represented by the nobles, the second the clergy and the third by the common people. When the king called for its meeting, each Estate sat separately. However, the members of the third estate demanded a joint sitting and one vote for each member. As the first and second Estates did not concede to this demand, there was a deadlock. On 17th June 1789, the third Estate declared itself as the National Assembly. The king got alarmed and prevented them from entering the hall. But, the members of the National Assembly went to a nearby Tennis Court and took an oath to frame a new constitution. This is known as Tennis Court Oath.

              On 23rd June 1789, a special session of States General was held. The king declared the acts of the Third Estate as illegal. He also ordered that the three Estates should meet separately. But the third Estate refused to accept the king’s orders. Hence, Louis XVI submitted to the will of the third Estate, which represented the common people. He ordered the three Estates to sit together. Thus the formation of National Assembly was completed.

Fall of the Bastille

             Although the king recognised the National Assembly, he decided to suppress it. A large number of soldiers were brought to Versailles and Paris. Necker, the popular minister was also dismissed. On hearing this, the mob of Paris became violent. They attacked the State prison called the Bastille, murdered the guards and freed the prisoners. The fall of the Bastille was regarded in France as a triumph of liberty. After the fall of the Bastille the peasants rose against the nobles. Riots began against the aristocrats all over France. Nobles were attacked and their castles stormed. They also destroyed the records of their feudal services. The nobles voluntarily surrendered their feudal rights and the privileges on 4th August 1789. Feudalism and serfdom were abolished. The principle of equality was established. Class distinctions were abolished. There was a shortage for bread in Paris. On 5th October, a large number of women went to the King’s palace at Versailles to make a petition. They were not satisfied with the reply of the queen and hence they brought with them the king, the queen and their son to Paris.

Work of the National Assembly (1789 - 1791)

               The National Assembly styled itself the Constituent Assembly. It drew up the Declaration of the Rights of Man. The new constitution drafted by the Constituent Assembly provided for a limited monarchy to France. The titles of the nobles were abolished. Judiciary was remodeled. The method of torture was abolished. New central and local courts were established. Judges were to be elected. Drastic action was also taken against the church. The monasteries were suppressed. Absolute religious toleration was proclaimed. The collection of tithes by the church was abolished. Then, measures were taken for the nationalization of church properties. After drafting the new constitution, the National Assembly dissolved itself in 1791.

Political Clubs

              The political clubs sprang up in different quarters. Of these, the most conspicuous were the Jacobian Club and Cordelier Club. The Jacobian Club was led by Robespierre, a radical democrat. The Cordelier Club was led by Danton. The Girondists were a group of eloquent young men and stood for establishing a republican form of government. Madame Roland was a prominent member of the Girondists.

The Legislative Assembly

               According to the new constitution, the new Legislative Assembly met in 1791. When the revolution broke out many of the nobles managed to escape from France. They carried out propaganda against the revolution in France and tried to mobilize support from other countries. Austria and Prussia came forward to help them. To curtail their activities the Legislative Assembly passed laws. The king did not approve of these laws and used his veto against them.

              King Leopold of Austria issued the famous Declaration of Pilnitz against the revolutionaries on 27th August 1791. War broke out between the revolutionary government and Austria in 1792. The revolutionary army was defeated. The wrath of the revolutionaries turned against the French king. On 10th August 1792 the mob attacked the King’s palace at Tuileries. The king was suspended and elections were ordered for a National Convention to prepare another new constitution for the country. This was followed by the “September Massacres”. The Revolutionary government at Paris led by Danton massacred 1500 suspected supporters of the French king. Then the French army defeated the Austrian army at Valmy.

 

The National Convention (1792 - 1795)

            After the dissolution of the Legislative Assembly, the National Convention met in 1792. It abolished monarchy and declared France as a republic. The king Louis XVI after a summary trail was found guilty of treason was guillotined (head cut off) on Sunday, 21st January 1793. Three days later the queen Maire Antoinette was also guillotined.

Reign of Terror

            The National convention divided on the issue of the execution of the king. The moderates did not agree with the Jacobians, who formed the majority in the Convention. The Jacobians had set up the Revolutionary Tribunal to deal with the moderates. It was the beginning of the Reign of Terror. It was the final phase of the Revolution. It was also the darkest period of the Revolution. Riots broke out in many places like Lyons, Marseilles and other cities. In 1793, the first coalition was formed by the European nations against the revolutionary government.

             The Jacobians suspended the constitution and created the Committee of Public Safety with full powers to deal with the situation. Robespierre was the leader of this committee. It put down all the riots staged by the royalists within the country. Many people were killed on suspicion of being royalists. Soon, Robespierre became a virtual dictator of France. But, his opponents turned against him and sent him to the guillotine in 1794.

End of Revolution

          With the fall of Robespeirre the Reign of Terror gradually came to an end. Moreover the public opinion was strongly against it. The Revolutionary Tribunal was suspended. The functions of Committee of Public Safety were restricted. The Jacobian Club was closed. The National Convention at last took up its long neglected task of framing of a constitution for the French Republic. The executive was entrusted to a Directory, consisting of five members. The legislative power was entrusted to two houses called the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of the Ancients. Napolean Bonapartee was then at Paris and he was entrusted with the task of defending the Convention against the Parisian mob. He dispersed the mob and saved the Convention and began his brilliant career. On October 26, 1795 the convention declared itself dissolved and the Directory took charge of the French government.

Results of the Revolution

             The French Revolution of 1789 inaugurated a new era in the history of the mankind. The ideas of “liberty, equality and fraternity” spread to other parts of the world. The Bourbon monarchy was abolished. The Revolution rejected tyranny, divine right, conservatism, and feudal vestiges associated with bourbon rule in France. At the same time it failed to establish a permanent Republic in France. The French Revolution, after a violent turn led to the emergence of a great dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.

Learning Outcome

After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain

1. The political, social and economic causes of the French Revolution

2. The role French thinkers like Voltaire, Rousseau and Montesquieu.

3. The fall of Bastille and the beginning of the revolution.

 4. The Constituent Assembly and its role in framing the constitution.

 5. The National Convention and its activities.

6. The Reign of Terror under Robespierre.

7. The end of the revolution and the results